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Modeling the World from Internet Photo Collections

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原文:Noah Snavely, Steven M. Seitz, Richard Szeliski. Modeling the World from Internet Photo Collections

1 Introduction

计算机视觉领域,一个关键的问题就是配准,即找出两个图像间的对应关系它们在一个公共的 3D 坐标系下的相对位姿问题。

2 Previous Work

2.1 Feature Correspondence

过去几十年的发展为现代特征检测和匹配技术发展奠定了基础,L-K 光流跟踪、 Harris 角点等。然而这些技术都依赖与特征点周围的图像块,即只是局部特征,因此在相似场景中的应用。Shi 和 Tomasi 提出了一个经过仿射扩展的 L-K 光流跟踪器,然而对于真实情况中的大基线匹配并不适用。本文使用的是一种更鲁棒的方法,由 Lowe 提出的 SIFT。

2.2 Structure from Motion

SfM 旨在通过一些列的特征对应关系同步重建未知 3D 场景结构及相机位姿。近年来,摄影测量技术,比如 BA,开始进入计算视觉领域,BA 被看做是执行三维重优化的黄金准则。作者发现,更好的估计 BA 优化中相机焦距可以产生更好的效果。本文是第一个成功的将 SfM 技术应用于各种各样的现实世界中的图片集的方法,其典型图片集来自数百种不同的相机、缩放尺度、分辨率、不同时间、光照、天气等。

2.3 Image-Based Modeling(IBM)

Image-Based Modeling 是一个通过输入的图像集合产生三维模型的过程。作者的工并不是为了进行三维可视化交互用的,而仅仅是用于重建一个稀疏的 3D 世界模型。

2.4 Image-Based Rendering(IBR)

The field of image-based rendering (IBR) is devoted to the problem of synthesizing new views of a scene from a set of input photographs.

2.5 Image Browsing, Retrieval, and Annotation

如何组织图片的研究已经存在很多方法了,大多数方法使用元数据,比如关键字、摄影师、时间等作为一个基本的图像组织结构。另一种方法就是标注,标注的好处是特征的对应关可以更好的得到保证,并且可以在图像间具体的物体和区域上传递标注。与大多数 AR 方法不作者使用 2D 图像标注在图像间传递。

3 Overview

三维重建最大的挑战是从数以百计、数以千计的不同视角、光照、天气条件、分辨率等的图片集中匹配并重建三维信息。作者使用当前计算机视觉中的两个重要的突破,即特征匹配和 SfM。作者的工作的一个关键特性就是可以自动的在图像间传递标注,因此一个图像中的物体信息可以被传播到所有包含该物体的其他图像中。

4 Reconstructing Cameras and Sparse Geometry 重建与粗几何

本文的方法不依赖于相机或其他设配来提供位姿、方位或几个信息,相反,而是通过使用计算机视觉技术从图片中获得这些信息。首先是在所有的图像中提取特征点,然后在图像对中匹配特征点,最后使用迭代优化的方法获得相机参数。

4.1 Keypoint Detection and Matching

作者使用 SIFT 检测子,该检测子同时提供了描述子。为了加速匹配,使用 ANN 进行匹配。为了降低误匹配,使用 SIFT 提出者使用的方法,即找出某个特征点的两个最近邻匹配,然后比较这两个距离的比值,如果比值 \(\frac{d_1}{d_2} < 0.6\) 则认为是好的匹配点,否则删除这两个特征。在匹配好特征之后,使用 RANSAC 方法估计出较好的 Fundamental 矩阵,这里使用的是 8 点法,同通过阈值来剔除 outlier,最后 RANSAC 出的 Fundamental 矩阵在使用 inliers 进行非线性优化,方法为 L-M 优化。最后再次通过阈值剔除一些异常点。

  1. 特征点检测:用 SIFT 提取每张图片的特征点,SIFT 对每张图中每个特征点产生一个128 维特征向量

  2. 特征点的匹配:目的是需要让图片间,对应的特征点之间赋予权值。如,玩偶眼睛部位对应特征点互相建立权值,而不与其他部位相匹配。

  3. \(k\)-d 树:为了达到这个效果,需衡量特征点之间距离,由上一步 sift 特征提取过程,每个特征点由一个 128 维的向量描述,所以特征点之间的距离问题就是高维向量间的距离问题。\(k\)-d 树可以将高维向量按二叉树分类,将不同大小的特征点分类至 \(k\)-d 树上不同的叶子节点。

  4. 衡量匹配点间的距离:对于图片 \(I\)​ 中每个特征点,用 ANN(近似最近邻搜索算法)搜索图片 \(J\)\(k\)-d 树中与 \(I\)​ 的特征点​最近的特征点,在不多于 200 次搜索中确定出 2 个最近邻点;

    • 如果两个最近邻的距离分别为 \(d_1\)\(d_2\)。且 \(\dfrac{d_1}{d_2}<0.6\),则接受匹配
  5. 为了保证图像两两之间的特征点匹配是 1 对 1 的,将影像中所有特征点都匹配完最近邻后,只能保证两图特征点之间是 1 对 1 或 n 对 1,若是 n 对 1,则将相关的 n 对匹配删除

  6. 由上面步骤,可以得出图片间哪些特征点是匹配的。也就是二维像素平面上特征点的关系,匹配点对应世界坐标系(三维)下同一点

  7. 估计基础矩阵 \(F\),用 8 点算法建立 8 维的线性方程组,和一个约束 \(det(F) = 0\)

    \[\begin{cases} p_1Fp_1' = 0 \\ p_2Fp_2' = 0 \\ .... \\ p_8Fp_8' = 0 \\ det(F)= 0 \end{cases}\]

    将线性方程组求解问题转为优化最小值问题,用 RANSACLM 算法迭代找到最小值进而求出基础矩阵,RANSAC 是一种拟合方法
    RANSAC 求基础矩阵的过程:

    • 自动提取两幅图像的特征点集并建立初始“匹配对集“
    • RANSAC 去除错误匹配对
      • 计算当前抽样所确定的基本矩阵 \(F\),和它的一致点集 \(S(F)\)
      • 如果当前的一致集大于原先的一致集,则保持当前的一致集 \(S(F)\) 和相应的基本矩阵 \(F\), 并删去原先的一致集和相应的基本矩阵
      • 由自适应算法终止抽样过程,获得最大一致集,最大一致集中的匹配对 (内点) 是正确 匹配对
    • 由最大一致集 (即正确匹配对) 重新估计基本矩阵。
  8. 以图片为节点,所有匹配的特征点按权重相连为线,组成一个图

4.2 Structure from Motion

下一步就是恢复一些列的相机参数,即旋转、平移及焦距。通过建立非线性最小而成问题通过使用 BA 可以求解这些参数。而非线性优化容易陷入局部极小值,所以给这些参数提一个较好的初始值至关重要。这里不是一次性的估计所有相机的参数,而是使用一增量的方法,逐步的增加相机。首先是找到一对匹配数量多的且基线大的图像,这就可以通过这两帧给出一个鲁棒的初始估计。位姿估计使用的是 5 点法。下一步从数据中选择那些拥有最对应的匹配点的图像已有位姿及对应的 3D 点图像作为下一待加入的图像。首先是运行 BA 优化,这里只允许优化当前帧的位姿及其观测到的 3D 点,先前加入的帧设置为固定,不参与优化。然后再将这些点和已加入进来的图像进行一个全局 BA 优化。然后重复此过程,直到所有可用的图像都处理完毕。这里并不是所有的图像都会使用,那些不符合要求的图像,比如匹配点太少等,不会用来进行三维重建。

在上述优化过程中,同时还会进行异常点的剔除工作,而且在添加新的图片时也并不是单纯只加入一张,而是加入多张。首先找出这多个图片中最大的匹配数量 M,然后提取不小于 0.75M 的图片作为新的图片加入到优化中。作者发现,同时估计径向畸变会给三维重建精度上带来很大的改善。为了防止畸变系数过大,在最小化方程中加入正则项 \(\lambda(k_1^2+k_2^2)\) 来防它们过大。

  1. 估计每张图片的参数(平移旋转焦距)
    为了防止优化收敛到局部最小,需再估计合适的初始图片集,对应两种情况使用两种方式初始化:

    • 方式一:
      当图片不能被单应性模型很好的描述时,从一对儿匹配特征点数量最多的两张图开始
    • 方式二:
      • 用 RANSAC 计算所有图像的单应性矩阵,并记录下来
        这里单应性应理解为:用相机从不同位置拍摄同一物体的图像之间存在单应性,可以用投影变换表示
      • 为了防止退化(选取图片过于相似,导致泛化性不够),在剩余图片中选一对单应性最 low(匹配程度最小)的图,但最少不得小于 100 个匹配
      • 对此初始化的两张图,用 5 点算法建立方程组,RANSAC 迭代估计参数,再执行两次 bundle adjustment
  2. 初始化后,再用 RANSAC 迭代估计内外部参数,在 RANSAC 每个迭代中中,添加另一个观察到轨迹最多的摄像机,区别于初始化使用的 5 点算法,这里用 DLT 技术初始化这个相机的外部参数,返回一个上三角矩阵作为内部参数的估计

  3. 最后把观测到的点,经过内外部参数转换为世界坐标后,把此相机观测到的所有点加入最小化投影误差的优化中

  4. 重投影误差的最小化使用 bundle adjustment 算法,选出使重投影误差最小的观测点(二维)

  5. 得到观测点后,依次将点加入 BA 优化模型中,假设世界坐标系下 \(P\) 点在各个摄象机成像平面观测点为:\(p_1,p_2,p_3,p_4\cdots\) 对应光线为: \(l_1,l_2,l_3,l_4\cdots\)。假设某次优化加入点 \(p_1\),就在 \(l_2,l_3,l_4\cdots\) 中寻找与 \(l_1\) 夹角最大的,如果最大夹角 > 2 则可三角化,否则视为特殊情况(平行摄像机)

  6. sfm 改进部分:
    1、丢弃包含离群点的轨迹,只将剩余的轨迹点加入优化中
    2、每次加入多个摄像机图片,每次按照图片之间匹配为 0.75M 为阈值添加
    3、估计径向畸变的参数

4.3 Geo-Registration

  1. 目的:将 sfm 得出的点云与卫星地图、数字高程地图等对齐
  2. 问题:上述过程都基于相对坐标
  3. 方法:
    • 先估计出世界坐标系的 Z 轴方向(重力向量)
    • 三维对齐问题变为二维对齐问题,可以人工手动配准

5 Photo Explorer Rendering

  1. 应用界面的介绍:省略
  2. 图像平滑切换中的渲染:图像切换的两种情况
    1、 从一张图切换到另一张图
    2、 从一张图切换到手选的部分
    这里主要论述了切换过程中视角的方向需要合理的选择,切换过程中也需要合理的图像插值
  3. 两种插值方式:triangulating the point cloud 和 planar impostors。文中用的是第二种方法,因为它的稳定性更高
  4. 注意有两种不需要渲染的情形:
    1、两张图片几乎没有共同特征点,直接通过淡入淡出来显示
    2、当 \(comonplane(C_j,C_k)\)\(Cj\)\(C_k\) 方向的均值垂直时

9 Research Challenges

Scale

互联网上图片非常多,然而有很多是冗余的,这意味着,我们可以仅使用这些图片的一小部进行高质量的三维重建。

9.1 Variability

虽然 SIFT 和其他特征匹配技术对外观变化有非常好的鲁棒性,但仍然还有很多场景下是有问题的。

9.2 Accuracy

大多数的 SfM 方法都是通过最小化重投影误差实现的,不能保证尺度精确度。而卫星图像、地图、数字高程度 (DEMs) 等可以提供精准的尺度数据,这些可以用来获得更精准的 SfM 结果。

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